Do They Teach This in Superhero Sex Ed? Diviant Art

Abstruse:It is important to sympathize the content of media, as media can promote stereotypes that communicate what gender roles, appearances, and acts of violence are acceptable in gild. This content analysis of 147 superheroes in lxxx movies plant that male heroes appeared much more oft than female person heroes. Females were more than likely to work in a grouping while males were more likely to work lonely. Males were more powerful, muscular, violent, and evil while women were more than attractive, thin, sexy/seductive, innocent, afraid, and helpless. Compared to males', females' clothes (both costumes and non-costumes) were more revealing on both the upper and lower bodies. Although both genders ofttimes have special abilities and use weapons, male person characters are more likely than female characters to take more one special power and use more than 1 weapon. Males more frequently had super strength and resistance to injury, while female characters more frequently were able to manipulate elements (e.g., fire). Males were significantly more likely to employ fighting skills, burn/flame weapons, and guns than females. The letters portrayed through superhero movies are discussed, with emphasis on implications of gender differences in portrayals of characters in movies.

The portrayal of flick superheroes may influence gender-related attitudes and behaviors, and reify socially constructed gender norms. Media portrayals communicate behavioral norms for both males and females (Paek, Nelson, & Vilela, 2011) and take potential to affect behaviors and attitudes. For instance, individuals who lookout large amounts of television typically have more stereotypical beliefs well-nigh gender than people who scout less (Signorielli, 1989) and viewing superhero programs has been positively related to male stereotyped play for boys and playing with weapons for both genders (Coyne, Linder, Rasmussen, Nelson, & Collier, 2014). Both adults and children imitate characters' actions or appearance (east.g., Coyne et al., 2014; Dittmar, 2009).

Content analyses of movies (and other media) are one method of understanding messages related to gender norms (east.g., Schultz, Moore, & Spitzberg, 2014). The purpose of this content analysis is to analyze superhero movies and identify gender differences in superheroes' roles, appearance, and violence.

The Importance of Studying Superhero Movies

Superhero movies have grown in popularity, especially in contempo years, and attract a large number of viewers (Time Mag ). As of 2016, 6 of the top 30 grossing films of all time are superhero movies (BoxOfficeMojo.com). Superhero films are activity-oriented and often draw individuals with extraordinary powers, technology, or skills who combat oft equally boggling evildoers. Essentially, superheroes serve as exemplars and their depiction may communicate ideas virtually a wide range of societal norms and values, including those relating to masculinity and femininity.

Children view superheroes as function models considering of traits (eastward.g., advent) or skills (e.thousand., weapons, violence) the characters possess (Anderson & Cavallaro, 2002;), which contribute to expectations and perceptions of gender roles (Jaffe & Berger, 1994). Messages most gender are communicated in both the quantity and qualities of male person and female characters. For example, male characters often outnumber female characters in video games (Dietz, 1998; Ivory, 2006; Miller & Summers, 2007; Scharrer, 2004), television set shows (including cartoons; Aubrey & Harrison, 2004; Baker & Raney, 2007), and advertising (Paek et al., 2011) maybe because boy viewers outnumber girl viewers (Thompson & Zerbinos, 1997) or because boys are considered less likely to watch programs that have female lead characters than those that have male person leads (Thompson & Zerbinos, 1997). Farther, male and female characters are portrayed differently. Male heroes are more often highly ambitious (Milkie, 1994) while female heroes are more than frequently empathetic, nurturing, and understanding (Calvert, Kondla, Ertel, & Meisel, 2001). Underrepresentation may extend beyond gender. For example, many superheroes announced to be White males. The lack of variety in superhero renditions may add to socially constructed views almost race/ethnicity, gender, and their intersection. Also, gender norms might be racialized, such that White superheroes might exist depicted with dissimilar qualities than Black superheroes. Considering their popularity, information technology is important to analyze the letters superhero films convey.

Content of Media: Roles, Appearance, and Violence

Previous studies evaluated gender roles in video games (Dietz, 1998; Ivory, 2006; Miller & Summers, 2007), cartoons (Bakery & Raney, 2007; Calvert et al., 2001), and Boob tube advertising (Paek et al., 2011), but have not specifically focused on superhero characters. This content analysis expands on previous research by analyzing superhero movies and reveals how superhero movies portray men and women in terms of their roles, appearance, and the blazon/quantity of violence they commit. Furthermore, although the researchers recognize the importance of examining race as information technology relates to gender, every bit will be demonstrated, in order to achieve adequate sample sizes, the current project focuses on gender. We encourage futurity research to focus on the intersections of race and gender in studying media with larger samples.

Gender Differences in Roles

When females are shown in media, they are sometimes portrayed as non-essential or passive characters (Dietz, 1998; Haninger & Thompson, 2004; Ivory, 2006). Female characters are more likely than males to accept a mentor (Baker & Raney, 2007) and majority of female person characters work in a team rather than lone (Bakery & Raney, 2007). Collectively, these results may suggest to viewers that women are less important, knowledgeable, and capable than men – and less probable to be a hero (Miller & Summers, 2007; Signorielli, 1989; Thompson & Zerbinos, 1997). Further, these portrayals may advise that males do not need to consult others or require assistance. In sum, media enquiry suggests that there might exist important gender differences in the roles of male and female superhero characters. Prior research has also examined gender differences in appearance (e.m., Ivory, 2006; Miller & Summers, 2007).

Gender Differences in Appearance

Previous content analyses of media characters accept revealed that women are shown primarily as sex objects (Miller & Summers, 2007). Females are more than likely than males to be portrayed in a sexualized fashion (Ivory, 2006) or as engaging in sexually suggestive behavior (Haninger & Thompson, 2004). In doing so, women typically vesture less and more than provocative wearable than men (Dietz, 1998; Thompson & Haninger, 2001; Scharrer, 2004). Generally, females are portrayed every bit attractive, sexy, and feminine (Baker & Raney, 2007; Dietz, 1998; Ivory, 2006; Miller & Summers, 2007; Scharrer, 2004), while males are portrayed as rugged, tough, masculine, and muscular (Baker & Raney, 2007; Miller & Summers, 2007; Scharrer, 2004). Females are more than often portrayed as helpless or equally victims than males (Aubrey & Harrison, 2004; Dietz, 1998; Miller & Summers, 2007; Thompson & Zerbinos, 1997). Also, in cartoons, females are depicted as more than emotional and superficial or more than likely to become overexcited in a crisis than males (Bakery & Raney, 2007). Such results bespeak that men and women are portrayed very differently in terms of appearance and behaviors, including behaviors associated with power or aggression.

Gender Differences in Violence

Past content analyses have indicated that male characters are frequently violent (Scharrer, 2004), use more weapons, and have more abilities (i.eastward., invisibility, super speed, martial arts, flying, or using magic) than female person characters (Miller & Summers, 2007). Females' victories are achieved through wit, nurturing, compassion, and persuasion rather than the weaponry, physical force, and assailment of their male counterparts (Calvert et al., 2001). Thompson and Zerbinos (1997) found that both male person and female children perceived male cartoon characters every bit more trigger-happy than female characters. In dissimilarity, Baker and Raney (2004) institute no significant differences in aggression between male person and female characters in cartoons. These studies indicate that, in some contexts, the media portrays men and women differently in terms of violence and disharmonize resolution. This could reinforce gender stereotypes that women are less powerful or take fewer abilities than men and that men are not capable of nurturing or compassion. The electric current study finds similar gender differences.

Overview of Study

This study examined full-length superhero movies to determine if there are gender differences in characters' roles, appearances, and violence.

A general inquiry question and several hypotheses were adult based on past content analyses. The general research question asks how characters are portrayed in superhero movies. Specifically, what roles do the superhero characters play (e.g., hero, supplemental character)? Are they portrayed as muscular, attractive, powerful, or sexy? Are they tearing, practice they take special powers, and exercise they use weapons?

Hypotheses:

Male person characters will have unlike general roles (e.1000., less probable to work in a group) than females (Hypothesis 1a) and different specific roles (eastward.g., soldier, detective) than females (Hypothesis 1b).

• ¥ Males volition appear more muscular and powerful than females, who will exist more bonny, sexy, and thin (Hypothesis 2a) and article of clothing more revealing clothing than male person characters (Hypothesis 2b).

• ¥ Males will have more special powers/abilities (e.g., super strength) (Hypothesis 3a) and volition apply weapons more often than females (Hypothesis 3b).

Methods

Movies were selected from a listing of "comic volume /superhero" movies categorized by Blockbuster.com. The list independent 146 movies released betwixt 1978 (starting with Superman: The Movie) and 2009. Eighty full-length move pictures (listed in Appendix A) or cartoons available for rent in the English language were selected for analysis from this list. The remainder were excluded due to a lack of availability (non available for rent) or because they were offered in just a strange language. Researchers selected the ii main male superheroes (if 2 were available; if more than than two were bachelor, 2 were selected randomly) and all female superheroes. A total of 147 hero characters were evaluated. Despite over sampling of female heroes, in that location were only 47 female heroes and 100 male heroes, a charge per unit of 1 female for every 2.13 male characters.

A codebook was developed based on past content analyses and a literature review. Researchers watched one moving picture in social club to operationalize study definitions (due east.one thousand., societal standards of size, attractiveness, behavior). Facial expressions (e.thou., angry, happy) were assessed with an explicit smiling or frown for both male and female person characters. Assessments of other characteristics, such every bit muscularity, were gendered. For instance, female characters were rated on muscularity relative to other females. Changes to the codebook were made based on word between researchers.

Adjacent, inter-rater reliability analysis ensured that researchers had a common understanding of the questions and operational definitions of variables. 2 researchers watched the same moving picture and completed their codebooks individually. They then compared responses and settled disagreements through discussion. Sixteen movies were included in the inter-rater reliability assay. Holsti's coefficient revealed an overall inter-rater reliability rate of .ninety, indicating that coders had a loftier level of overall agreement (run into Table ane). Coefficients for individual variables ranged from 0.66 for the sexy/seductive variable to 0.97 on other variables. One researcher coded the remaining 64 movies.

Tabular array i: Holsti'south coefficient of reliability for all factors

Variable	Holsti	Variable	Holsti
Gender of chief character	0.97	Role of graphic symbol	0.97
Graphic symbol's looks: muscular	0.84	Character's looks: sexy or seductive	0.66
Character'southward looks: attractive	0.vii 0.78	Character's looks: thin	0.69
Character's looks: powerful	0.84	Character's looks: helpless	0.88
Grapheme's looks: helpful	0.81	Character's looks: evil	0.91
Character's looks: happy	0.72	Grapheme's looks: mad	0.78
Grapheme's looks: carefree	0.84	Graphic symbol's looks: innocent	0.84
Grapheme's looks: afraid	0.81	Character'due south looks: violent	0.69
Graphic symbol's power: invisible	0.97	Graphic symbol's ability: super speed	0.94
Character'south power: martial arts	0.94	Character's ability: skate/board/bike	0.97
Character'due south ability: special senses	0.97	Graphic symbol's power: flight	0.97
Character'southward power: magic	0.97	Grapheme's power: using weapons	0.97
Character'due south ability: swim	0.97	Character'southward ability: super strength	0.94
Character'south ability: resistance to injury	0.97	Character'due south ability: manipulates elements	0.97
Character's weapon: gun	0.97	Grapheme's ability: other	0.97
Character'southward weapon: fire	0.97	Character'southward weapon: knife/sword	0.91
Character'due south weapon: fighting	0.94	Character'southward weapon: grenades	0.97
Graphic symbol's weapon: tank	0.97	Character's weapon: ice	0.97
Character's weapon: magic spells	0.97	Character's weapon: bow and pointer	0.97
Grapheme'due south weapon: rope	0.97	Graphic symbol's weapon: poison	0.97
Character wears costume	0.94	Graphic symbol'south weapon: other	0.97
Costume: overall	0.84	Costume: overall tightness	0.84
Costume: revealing lower body	0.94	Costume: revealing upper body	0.91
Not-costume clothes: overall	0.88	Non-costume clothes: overall tightness	0.84
Non-costume apparel: revealing lower body	0.91	Non-costume clothes: revealing upper body	0.88
Overall Holsti coefficient	0.90

Measures

The codebook included variables measuring gender, appearance, special abilities, and weapons. Appearance and attire variables were rated using a Likert scale of 0 (non at all) to 4 (extreme). Special abilities and weapon usage variables were scored as "yes" (nowadays) or "no" (non present). "Yes/no" questions assessed characters' roles (e.grand., does hero work in a group?).

Results

Difference of proportions tests adamant the variation between male and female superheroes in regard to roles, weapon usage, and special abilities. Difference of ways tests (t-tests) assessed significant differences between male and female superhero appearance and attire.

Enquiry Question: General Portrayal of Characters

The research question asks how characters are portrayed in superhero movies. For example, what abilities practice they have? What roles do they play? Are they muscular, bonny, powerful, or sexy? Males were rated an average of two.83 (out of iv) on the powerful calibration, with 84% of characters scoring in a higher place the scale midpoint. Similarly, males scored 2.42 on the muscular scale, with 77% scoring in a higher place the scale'southward midpoint. Females averaged two.36 on the sexy/seductive scale, with 74.five% scoring higher up the midpoint. Similarly, females scored 2.66 on a scale measuring thinness, with 78.8% scoring higher up the scale'due south midpoint. They also averaged 3.15 in attractiveness, with 100% scoring above the midpoint. Thus, the majority of male characters were portrayed equally powerful and muscular, while the majority of females were portrayed as sexy, thin, and bonny.

Twenty of 47 (42.6%) female person characters and 75 of 100 (75%) male characters had more than than one special ability, indicating 1 female for every iii.75 male characters. Twelve of 47 female characters (25.five%) and 58 of 100 male person characters (58%) had more than than one weapon, indicating 1 female for every 4.83 male characters.

Hypothesis 1 investigated gender differences in superheroes' roles.

Hypothesis 1a was partially supported: male characters had dissimilar general roles than females. Most (71.9%) male person characters did not work in a group while 66% did and then; farther, 46.8% of women were supplemental characters.

Hypothesis 1b was partially supported: males and females accept dissimilar specific roles. The only meaning gender deviation was that men were more than likely to be detectives or cloak-and-dagger agents (run across Table 2).

Table ii: Difference of proportions: Gender differences of character roles

	Female person (n=47)	Male (n=100)	95% CI	p value	z-score
Looks like real homo/woman	93.half dozen%	83.0%	[0.47%, xx.77%]	0.04	two.05
Detective, secret agent	0.0%	vii.0%	[-12.00%, -2.00%]	0.006	-two.74
Robot	0.0%	two.0%	[-4.74%, 0.74%]	0.153	-1.43
Zombie or other "undead"	0.0%	6.0%	[-10.65%, -one.35%]	0.012	-ii.53
Non-human being cartoon	2.1%	14.0%	[-19.83%, -3.93%]	0.003	-two.93
Police force officer or security officer	two.ane%	7.0%	[-11.36%, 1.61%]	0.141	-1.47
Soldier, warrior, ninja	ten.6%	nineteen.0%	[-20.06%, 3.34%]	0.161	-1.4
Homo that tin transform into something else	12.8%	22.0%	[-21.76%, three.29%]	0.149	-1.44
Other	eight.5%	16.0%	[-eighteen.23%, iii.25%]	0.172	-i.37

Hypothesis 2 determined whether in that location were gender differences in characters' advent and attire.

Hypothesis 2a was more often than not supported: there were gender differences in the appearance of characters. Table 3 indicates ways for males were significantly higher than means for females on the items measuring ability, muscularity, violence, and evil. In comparison, means for females were significantly higher than ways for males on bewitchery, thinness, sexiness/seductiveness, innocence, fear, and helplessness.

Table 3: Deviation of ways: Gender differences in graphic symbol advent

	Female M (n = 47)	Male person Chiliad (n = 100)	95% CI	p value	t-Score
Evil	0.128	0.33	[-0.4, -0.004]	0.045	-2.02
Agape	ane.32	0.704	[0.236, 0.994]	0.002	3.23
Helpless	ane.3	0.81	[0.155, 0.821]	0.005	2.92
Innocent, Sweetness	ane.85	0.96	[0.48, 1.303]	0.000	4.3
Sexy or Seductive	2.36	0.97	[0.954, ane.829]	0.000	6.33
Carefree	0.81	0.97	[-0.528, 0.205]	0.383	-0.88
Happy	one.85	1.69	[-0.212, 0.534]	0.394	0.86
Angry	1.36	1.78	[-0.843, 0.006]	0.053	-1.96
Attractive	3.149	i.eight	[1.01, 1.688]	0.000	7.87
Thin	two.66	2.xiv	[0.092, 0.945]	0.018	2.42
Trigger-happy	1.37	2.23	[-1.296, -.0425]	0.000	-3.92
Muscular	0.872	2.42	[-1.929, -1.166]	0.000	-8.03
Helpful	2.4	ii.58	[-0.548, 0.197]	0.352	-0.94
Powerful	1.66	two.83	[-1.663, -0.678]	0.000	-4.74

Hypothesis 2b was mostly supported: female characters wore more sexy and revealing clothing than males. Tabular array iv indicates means for female characters were significantly higher than ways for male person characters on variables measuring the revealing nature of non-costume wear (e.g., dress the character wore when not acting as the superhero) and costume clothing (e.grand., superhero costume). This issue held for both the upper trunk and the lower torso. Similarly, females' non-costume clothing was significantly tighter than males'. The only category not significant was the overall tightness of the costume article of clothing, which may be confounded past the tight clothing inherent to the genre.

Table 4: Divergence of means: Gender differences of character attire

	Female person M (northward = 44)	Male 1000 (n = 89)	95% CI	p value	t-score
Non-costume Wearable Revealing Overall	0.86	0.34	[0.163, 0.891]	0.005	ii.88
Non-costume Clothing Upper Trunk Revealing	1.xvi	0.52	[0.256, 1.029]	0.001	3.31
Not-costume Clothing Lower Torso Revealing	1.23	0.66	[0.153, 0.976]	0.008	2.73
Not-costume Clothing Tightness	ane.36	0.76	[0.158, 1.041]	0.008	2.71
	(n = 32)	(northward = 70)
Costume Revealing Overall	one.fifty	0.59	[0.386, 1.442]	0.001	3.48
Costume Lower Body Revealing	one.xiii	0.53	[0.096, 1.097]	0.020	2.39
Costume Upper Body Revealing	one.44	0.69	[0.183, 1.321]	0.011	2.65
Costume Overall Tightness	ii.65	two.09	[-0.063, 1.182]	0.077	1.80

**Annotation that the n varies because some characters wore only costumes, some simply wore non-costumes, and some wore both.

Hypothesis three determined whether in that location were gender differences in characters' special abilities and weapons.

Hypothesis 3a was partially supported: there were differences in special abilities of male and female characters. Table 5 indicates males have significantly more special abilities. Males more ofttimes had super strength and resistance to injury, while female characters more frequently were able to manipulate elements (eastward.m., fire, h2o,).

Table v: Departure of proportions: Gender differences of character special abilities

	Female (n=47)	Male (n=100)	95% CI	P-Value	Z-Score
Special Abilities Overall	68.1%	85.0%	[-31.97%, -1.86%]	0.028	-two.twenty
Become invisible	2.ane%	i.0%	[-iii.44%, v.59%]	0.628	0.48
Swim	0.0%	2.0%	[-4.74%, 0.74%]	0.153	-1.43
Skateboarding/snowboarding/ bike riding	0.0%	2.0%	[-iv.74%, 0.74%]	0.153	-one.43
Manipulate elements (burn down, water, ice, air current, etc)	21.three%	7.0%	[one.55%, 27.00%]	0.028	2.20
Magic	4.3%	seven.0%	[-10.38%, 4.89%]	0.481	-0.70
Flying	17.0%	twenty.0%	[-16.28%, x.32%]	0.661	-0.44
Special senses (seeing, hearing)	12.8%	22.0%	[-21.76%, iii.29%]	0.149	-one.44
Super speed	17.0%	23.0%	[-nineteen.52%, 7.57%]	0.387	-0.87
Resistance to injury	10.half-dozen%	32.0%	[-34.06%, -8.66%]	0.001	-three.three
Martial arts	29.8%	40.0%	[-26.43%, 6.01%]	0.217	-i.23
Super forcefulness	17.0%	44.0%	[-41.47%, -12.48%]	<0.005	-3.65
Using weapons	36.ii%	52.0%	[-32.70%, i.04%]	0.066	-1.84
Other	fourteen.nine%	8.0%	[-four.59, 18.38%]	0.239	1.xviii

Hypothesis 3b was partially supported: male characters used more weapons than females. Table half-dozen indicates males were significantly more likely to use fighting skills, fire or flame weapons, and guns.

Table 6: Difference of proportions: Gender differences of character weapon usage

	Female (n=47)	Male (n=100)	95% CI	P-Value	Z-Score
Were weapons used	seventy.ii%	87.0%	[-31.43%, -2.15%]	0.025	-2.25
Water ice / Freezing Device	four.3%	0.0%	[-1.52%, x.03%]	0.148	1.45
Rope	0.0%	1.0%	[-2.95, 0.95%]	0.315	-1.01
Bow & Arrow	4.3%	1.0%	[-2.84%, 9.35%]	0.295	ane.05
Tank or other vehicle	0.0%	2.0%	[-iv.74%, 0.74%]	0.153	-1.43
Magic Spells	2.one%	2.0%	[-4.83%, five.08%]	0.96	0.05
Grenades	ii.ane%	9.0%	[-13.84%, 0.09%]	0.053	-1.93
Fire / Flame	two.1%	thirteen.0%	[-18.65%, -3.ten%]	0.006	-ii.74
Knife / Sword	21.three%	32.0%	[-25.57%, 4.xiii%]	0.157	-ane.42
Guns	23.4%	40.0%	[-32.05%, -one.15%]	0.035	-2.11
Fighting	34.0%	62.0%	[-44.51%, -xi.xl%]	0.001	-3.31
Other	31.9%	28.0%	[-12.06%, xix.89%]	0.631	0.48

Additional Observations

Although not a major focus of the research, we noted some interesting patterns regarding the race of the female characters. For example, they often were stereotyped, masked, and/or not-humans in movies targeted toward a non-White audience (e.k., homogeneous grouping of actors of color). In the entire sample, 101 characters were White, 17 were Black, 4 were Latino, and 4 were Asian. The race of the others was unidentifiable (due east.g., they wore a costume, were non-human). Considering of the very small sample of characters of color, it is not statistically meaningful to exercise quantitative comparisons of interactions betwixt genders. However, a few notes can be made about the intersections of race and gender. While a detailed qualitative analysis is beyond the scope of this paper, at that place are some notable observations near the portrayal of female characters of color.

Of the 47 female characters, merely 11 were characters of colour. Five female characters were Black—only this is misleading because 3 of them were the same character appearing in iii dissimilar movies (X-Men's Storm who is a mutant). 1 is Patience (a very stereotypical feminine proper name) Phillips, who plays Catwoman. Of interest, both Tempest and Catwoman characters are played past Halle Berry whose mother is White and father is Black (although she identifies as Black). The final Black character is Vanessa from Blade, who is a vampire. Notably, of these 3 characters, none is a "normal human being"; they are mutants or vampires, and wear costumes to hibernate their identity.

Four female person characters were Asian. Silver Militarist is a Hong Kong moving picture with a female masked hero whose stereotypical expertise is martial arts. Ii movies were part of a Hong Kong produced trilogy in which all the characters are Asian (e.chiliad., Thief Catcher, the Heroic Trio). The fourth was a female martial artist in the Japanese motion-picture show Ruby-red Shadow. All of these are probable marketed for Asian audition, and all three portray Asian women in a stereotypical manner.

Only 2 were Latina, including ane that was a stereotypical role: Maria from Zorro. The other is the Pinkish Power Ranger who wears a costume when fighting crime. Annotation that they have stereotypically Latina names (Maria) or wear femininized colors (Pink). Given the big (and growing) Latino population in the U.S., the lack of Latino characters is particularly problematic. We hope that future inquiry volition investigate issues of race, gender, and superheroes farther.

Discussion

This content analysis revealed significant gender differences in the portrayal of superhero characters' roles, appearance, and violence. Supporting earlier findings of video games characters (eastward.g., Miller & Summers, 2007), television shows (including cartoons; e.thousand., Bakery & Raney, 2007), and advertising (Paek et al., 2011), female characters are less represented than male characters. Researchers selected and analyzed but two male heroes and all female heroes per film, yet there were notwithstanding twice as many males. Also similar to past studies (e.yard., Baker & Raney, 2007), males were portrayed more often as individual heroes rather than teams working in groups.

Current findings replicated previous studies, which found males were portrayed as more powerful and muscular (east.1000., Scharrer, 2004) and females equally more than sexy and attractive (eastward.g., Ivory, 2006). Female person characters wore significantly more revealing clothing, in both non-costume and costume (east.g., Miller & Summers, 2007) and were portrayed as more helpless than males (east.g., Aubrey & Harrison, 2004).

Finally, male characters were more than likely to have more than than one special ability and use more than than one weapon.

Results take implications for superhero motion picture viewers, and society more than broadly. If media frequently and consistently underrepresent female characters and portray them every bit supplemental characters who need the aid of others, then viewers might believe that these depictions apply to women in full general (Aubrey & Harrison, 2004). Gender differences in media role portrayals are influential because these portrayals tin perpetuate stereotypes about behavioral norms for males and females (Paek et al., 2011). For example, when media portray females equally helpless and passive, males might expect females to act accordingly, and females might underestimate their ability to protect themselves.

Results of this study stand for with previous inquiry (e.1000., Ivory, 2006): media portray men as powerful and muscular and women as attractive, sexy, and thin. Such portrayals might have effects on self-esteem and body image. Females might feel compelled to participate in more sexualized beliefs past wearing more revealing clothing in order to gain acceptance from males. Females might also adopt unhealthy eating habits to be thin like their media role models. Similarly, men might feel inferior after comparison themselves to unrealistically muscular and powerful male superhero characters. This could effect in negative self-esteem, steroid usage, or other drastic attempts to create a muscular physique. According to Dittmar (2009), body image contributes to mental and physical well-existence. Low and social anxiety tin can upshot from dissatisfaction with 1's concrete appearance when comparisons are fabricated to fictional or real people,

Finally, the study has implications for viewers of violent media. This content analysis confirms that male heroes more ofttimes used violence to resolve disharmonize (eastward.thou., more than employ of abilities and weapons) as compared to females (who were portrayed as significantly more than helpless and agape). Viewers might infer that it is not acceptable for a human being to be compassionate; instead, he must be violent. These media portrayals might relate to aggressive or uncooperative beliefs (Anderson, Gentile, & Buckley, 2007) or bullying (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2009). Viewers may perceive that considering there is so much violence (e.one thousand., usage of weapons) in the media that violence in existent life is an acceptable solution to resolving conflict.

Limitations

One limitation of this written report is that not all movies on the list were evaluated. This content analysis examined approximately 55% of the movies provided on the full list from Blockbuster. Due to the lack of availability or because of a foreign language, researchers were unable to decide if at that place are systematic differences in gender roles, appearance, and violence presented in those movies that were excluded. Further, it is possible that some superhero movies were left off the Blockbuster.com listing and non considered in this study.

Another limitation is that non all superhero characters were analyzed. Researchers chose all females, just merely 2 primary male person characters. Male characters who appeared simply briefly in the motion-picture show may differ from principal characters. This procedure besides means that main male characters were compared to all female person characters. A comparison of but main male person and main female characters would be a more straight evaluation.

Finally, tests of interrater reliability measured whether the researchers were coding similarly to each other, however this does non accost the validity of the coding. Both researchers could have the same bias (e.g., perceiving females as more angry than males), but this is difficult to assess.

Future Directions

As mentioned previously, time to come enquiry may benefit from an examination of race/ethnicity in addition to gender as they relate to superheroes and they ways in which they are portrayed. A quick perusal of contemporary popular superhero movies (e.g., Batman vs. Superman , Iron Man 3 , Spider-human being) indicates that virtually leading characters are White males. On the rare occasion that a female person is a leading superhero character (e.thou., Supergirl , Jessica Jones ) or the virtually powerful grapheme (e.g., X-Men's Jean Grey/Phoenix), the character is also White.

Media portrayals tin perpetuate sexist social norms and the objectification of women. Furthermore, mainstream media unremarkably trivialize or hypersexualize women of color (Guzmán & Valdivia, 2004; Manatu, 2002; Martinez, 2004) and promote impossible standards of beauty (Perry, 2003). Also, women of color are often seen as characters that assimilate to a White, Westernized civilisation and are repeatedly dominated or divers by men (Brooks & Hérbet, 2004; Guzmán & Valdivia, 2004). In the brief review of our sample, nosotros noted that characters of colour were often masked, given stereotypical names, or portrayed every bit characters that were non human. Interestingly, Halle Berry (who is biracial) was chosen to play the Black character—epitomizing the demand for Blacks to exist "every bit White" as possible.

The current content analysis confirmed that women were underrepresented in superhero movies. Hereafter research could examine the frequency with which members of marginalized groups are represented in superhero movies and the degree to which their roles, appearance, and trend for violence may differ, especially in terms of gender.

Futurity research should identify the impacts of these gender differences on movie viewers. Also, more research needs to be conducted in order to determine the impact media, specifically superhero movies, take regarding gender function expectations and stereotypes.

Conclusion

The electric current written report revealed significant gender differences in the portrayal of superhero characters in movies. Male superheroes outnumbered females and more often did not work in a grouping. At the same fourth dimension, females were more likely to work in groups, and were often supplemental characters. These portrayals might signify to viewers that females are of a lower status and less capable of fending for themselves than males. Females wore more than revealing clothing than men, which comports with other studies that discover women objectified in media. Male person characters were more muscular and powerful while female characters were more than attractive, sexy, thin, afraid, and helpless. Lastly, males used special abilities and weapons more than often than females, while females were more than likely to manipulate natural elements. Collectively, these depictions may communicate ideas almost women every bit nurturing and fertile, passive non-agentic groundwork characters and (White) men equally powerful masters of reason who operate in the foreground (Plumwood, 1993).

Media influences gender roles (Signorielli, 1989), appearances (Anderson & Cavallaro, 2002), and the propensity for violence (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2009). Gender inequality may exist harmful because it limits socially accepted roles and reinforces stereotypes within guild, which might bear upon how people judge and treat others (Paek et al., 2011).

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Mariah Evans for her help in preparing the analysis of this article.

References

American Academy of Pediatrics (2009). Policy statement – media violence. American Academy of Pediatrics, 124(5), 1495-1503. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-2146

Anderson, K. J. & Cavallaro, D. (2002). Parents or pop culture? Children'southward heroes and office models. Childhood Pedagogy, 78(3), 161-168.

Anderson, C. A., Gentile, D. A., & Buckley, K. Eastward. (2007). Vehement video game furnishings on children and adolescents: Theory, enquiry, and public policy. New York: Oxford University Press.

Aubrey, J. S., & Harrison K. (2004). The gender-role content of children's favorite tv programs and its links to their gender-related perceptions. Media Psychology, 6(two), 111-146.

Bakery, K., & Raney, A. A. (2007). Every bit Super?: Gender-part stereotyping of superheroes I children'due south animated programs. Mass Communication & Gild, 10(one), 25-41. doi:10.1080/15205430701229626

Bartholow, B. D., & Anderson, C. A. (2002). Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior: Potential sex activity differences. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38(3),283-290. doi:10.1006/jesp.2001.1502

Blockbuster (2010, February 1). Comic volume & superhero movies. Blockbuster, LLC. Retrieved from http://www.blockbuster.com/outlet/categories/actionAdventure/comicBookSuperh ero

Box Part Mojo (2016). Domestic Grosses. Box Office Mojo (An IMDb company). Retrieved from http://boxofficemojo.com/alltime/domestic.htm

Brooks, D. E., & Hébert, Fifty. P. (2004). Lessons learned or bamboozled? Gender in a Spike Lee film. Unpublished manuscript.

Calvert, S. L., Kondla, T. A., Ertel, One thousand. A., & Meisel, D. S. (2001). Young adults' perceptions and memories of a televised adult female hero. Sex Roles, 45(1/2), 31-52.

Coyne, Southward. M., Linder, J. R., Rasmussen, E. E., Nelson, D. A., Collier, K. M. (2014). It'due south a bird! It's a plane! It'southward a gender stereotype!: Longitudinal associations between superhero viewing and gender stereotyped play. Sexual activity Roles, seventy, 416-430.

Dietz, T. 50. (1998). An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games: Implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior. Sex Roles, 38(5/six), 425-442.

Dittmar, H. (2009). How practise "body perfect" ideals in the media have a negative impact on torso epitome and behaviors? Factors and processes related to self and identity. Periodical of Social & Clinical Psychology, 28(one), 1-8.

Dodds, Eastward. (2014). How superhero movies are saving Hollywood. Time Magazine. Retrieved from http://time.com/79410/justice-league-superhero-universe/

Guzmán, I. M., & Valdivia, A. N. (2004). Brain, brow, and booty: Latina iconicity in Usa popular civilisation.The Communication Review,7(two), 205-221.

Haninger, M., & Thompson, K. M. (2004). Content and ratings of teen-rated video games. Journal of the American Medical Association, 291(7), 856-865.

Hogrobrooks, H. A. (1993). Prime time crime: The role of television in the denigration and dehumanization of the AfricanAmerican male. In J. W. Ward (Ed.), African American communications: An anthology in traditional and contemporary studies (pp. 165–172). Dubuque, IA: Kendall/ Hunt.

Ivory, J. (2006). Still a man'due south game: Gender representation in online reviews of video games. Mass Communication and Society, ix(1), 103-114 doi:10.1207/s15327825mcs0901_6

Jaffe, 50. J., & Berger, P. D. (1994). The outcome of modern female sexual activity function portrayals on advertizement effectiveness. Journal of Advertising Inquiry, 34(4), 32-42. Retrieved from http://www.warc.com/fulltext/jar/6312.htm

Kort-Butler, L. A. (2013). Justice League?: Depictions of justice in children'south superhero cartoons. Criminal Justice Review, 38, 50-69. Doi:10.1177/0734016812467201

Kort-Butler, L. A. (2012). Rotten, vile and depraved! Depictions of misdeed in superhero cartoons. Deviant Beliefs, 7, 566-581. doi: 10.1080/01639625.2011.636718

Manatu, North. (2002).African American women and sexuality in the cinema. North Carolina, Usa: McFarland & Visitor, Inc.

Martinez, K. (2004). Latina magazine and the invocation of a panethnic family: Latino identity equally it is informed by celebrities and Papis Chulos. Communication Review, seven, 155–174

Milkie, M. (1994). Social world approach to cultural studies: Mass media and gender in the adolescent peer group. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 23(3), 354-380.

Miller, K. Yard., & Summers, A. (2007). Gender differences in video game characters' roles, appearances, and attire as portrayed in video game magazines. Sexual activity Roles, 57(9/10), 733-42. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9307-0

Paek, H-J., Nelson, K. R., & Vilela, A. M. (2011). Examination of gender-role portrayals in television ad beyond seven countries. Sex Roles, 64(iii/4), 192-207. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9850-y

Perry, I. (2003). Who(se) am I? The identity and image of women in hip-hop. In G. Dines & J. Humez (Eds.), Gender, race, and form in media: A text-reader (2d ed., pp. 136–148). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Plumwood, V. (1993).Feminism and the mastery of nature. London: Routledge.

Scharrer, E. (2004). Media and youth: Gender and aggression in video game advertisements. Mass Communication and Society, 7(4), 393-412.

Schultz, A. Due south., Moore, J., & Spitzberg, B. H. (2014). Once upon a midnight stalker: A content assay of stalking in films. Western Journal of Advice, 78, 612-635.doi: 10.1080/10570314.2013.809475

Signorielli, N. (1989). Television and conceptions about sex roles: Maintaining conventionality and the status quo. Sex Roles, 21(5/half-dozen), 341-360. doi:ten.1007/BF00289596

Thompson, K. M., & Haninger, K. (2001). Violence in E-rated video games. Periodical of the American Medical Association, 286(5), 591-920.

Thompson, T. L., & Zerbinos, E. (1997). Television cartoons: Exercise children notice
It's a boy's globe? Sex Roles, 37(4/5), 415–432.

Appendix A

Films Included in Analyses

Barb Wire	1996	R
Batman	1989	PG-13
Batman & Mr. Freeze Subzero	1998	NR
Batman and Robin	1997	PG-13
Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker	2002	PG-thirteen
Batman Forever	1995	PG-13
Batman Returns	1992	PG-13
Blackmask	1999	R
Blade	2004	R
Blade	1998	R
Blade Trinity	2004	R
Blankman	1994	PG-13
Catwoman	2004	pg-13
Daredevil	2003	PG13
Dark Man two	1995	R
Darkman	1994	R
Darkman III: Die Darkman Dice	2007	R
Dick Tracy	1990	PG
Fantastic 4 Ascent of the Silver Surfer	2007	pg-13
Wink Gordon	1980	PG
Ghost Passenger	2007	PG xiii
Greenish lantern: First Flight	2009	PG-13
Hancock	2008	PG-13
Hellboy 2	2008	PG13
Hellboy	2004	PG-13
Hulk Vs	2009	PG-xiii
Ironman	2008	PG-13
Judge Dred	1995	Action
Justice League: The New Frontier	2008	PG-13
Meteor Human	1993	PG
My Super Ex-Girlfriend	2006	PG-13
Mystery Men	1999	PG-13
Popeye	1980	NR (Not Rated)
Power Rangers Mystic Force Dark Wish	2006	PG
Cerise Shadow	2001	NR (Not Rated)
Sidekick	2005	not rated
Argent Hawk	2005	PG 13
Sky High	2005	PG
Spawn	1997	PG-13
Spider-man	2001	PG-thirteen
Spider-man 2	2004	PG-xiii
Spider-Man 3	2007	PG-13
Super Capers	2008	PG
Superhero Motion-picture show	2008	PG-thirteen
Superman/Batman: Public Enemies	2009	PG-xiii
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles 2: The Secret of the Ooze	1991	PG
The Crow	1994	R
The Crow: City of Angels	1996	R
The Crow: Wicked Prayer	2005	R
The Crow: Salvation	2000	R
The Dark Knight	2008	PG13
The Fantastic Four	2007	PG-13
The Heroic Trio	1992	Due north/a
The Hulk	2003	PG-13
The Incredible Hulk	2008	PG-13
The incredible Hulk	2003	PG-13
The Incredibles	2004	PG
The Invincible Atomic number 26 human	2007	PG-13
The League of Extrodinary Gentlemen	2003	PG-13
The Ninja Turtles three	1993	PG
The Phantom	1996	PG
The Punisher	2004	R
The Punisher 1989	1989	R
The Shadow	1994	PG-13
The Spirit	2008	R
TMNT	2007	PG
Ultimate Avengers 2	2006	PG-13
Unbreakable	2000	PG-13
Underdog	2007	PG
Watchmen	2009	R
Wonder Adult female	1975	NR (Not rated)
X-men	2000	PG-13
10-Men 2: United	2003	PG-thirteen
X-Men, Origins	2009	PG-xiii
10-Men: The Last Stand	2006	PG-13
Zoom	2006	G
Zorro: Return to the Hereafter	2007	NR (not rated)

—CITATION—
Miller, Thou. Grand., Rauch, J. A. & Kaplan, T. (2016) Gender Differences in Motion picture Superheroes' Roles, Appearances, and Violence. Ada: A Journal of Gender, New Media, and Technology, No. 10. doi:10.7264/N3HX19ZK

This commodity has been openly peer reviewed at Ada Review.

This work is licensed nether a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

richardsontherds.blogspot.com

Source: https://adanewmedia.org/2016/10/issue10-miller-rauch-kaplan/

Share this post